Policy Paper - US Environmental Protection Agency about Energy use and Research

Policy - US Environmental Protection Agency about Energy use and opportunities for energy savings - Research Paper Example We should also aim at making all our resources and energy at the same rate. Whenever energy efficiency chances are available to us, we should take the opportunity without thinking twice. Those with energy efficiency innovations should be encouraged and provided with the necessary support both financial and moral, the information that they later avail should always be made available at and if found important applied to the country’s economy. I encourage the harnessing of energy in the country and driving their availability and disclosure. Energy is the key to running a successful business, home and the country’s economy as a whole. The government has often been seen to neglect the role of energy in the growth of the country’s economy. Energy reduction can play a great role in managing our country’s energy system. The measures that contribute to the reduction in the demand for energy can be applied in a more cost effective way than we can imagine. It meets our energy needs as well. Therefore, we should be proud of the innovations that are essential to achieving these courses. The country should be in a position to use the amount of energy that we need at a given time only. The amount of carbon emission can go down as well and thus aiding the achievement f our carbon budget. Homes in our country have been built and developed over several years with their energy efficiency varying from good to worst thus bringing many of these homes to the levels of being less worthwhile for investment. In the same line, it presents an enormous business opportunity and even goes as far as exporting to other external markets overseas. This strategy will be helpful in the country. These also set our ambition as a country clear and being able to identify the various barriers that we can face in our quest. We, therefore, stimulate our energy efficiency market as well as those we use within our country2. Energy

Metronidazole Retention Enema Experiment and Study

Metronidazole Retention Enema Experiment and Study 1. Introduction 1.1. Rectal dosage forms   The most common and usually most convenient route for administering conventional pharmaceutical dosage forms is orally, where the drug dissolves in the gastric and/or intestinal fluids and is absorbed to reach the site of action. Dissolution and absorption of the drug from the gastro-intestinal environment depends upon many factors e.g. the physico-chemical properties of the drug, enzymes, metabolism, pH of the fluids etc. and these are considered as major drawback when localized drug delivery in the colon is required. Colonic drug delivery system offers advantages over oral dosage forms in improving the efficacy and achieving high concentrations with minimal side-effects1. 1.1.1. Advantages and limitations of rectal dosage forms Advantages: Safe and painless form of administration. Drugs liable to degradation in the gastrointestinal tract can be administration. First pass elimination (drugs liable to degrade before reaching the site of action) of high clearance drugs is partially owing to bypassing the liver. Even larger doses can be administered. Drugs can be administered rectally in the long term care of geriatric and terminally ill patients. Administration of rectal suppositories or capsules is a simple procedure that can be under taken even by unskilled healthcare personnel and patients. Limitations: Patients acceptability and compliance is poor, especially for long term therapy. Suppositories can leak. Drug absorption from suppositories is slow in comparison to oral or intravenous administration. 1.2. Different rectal drug formulations Many formulations are developed for rectal use and these include suppositories (in the form of solid dose suspensions and emulsions), irrigations, gelatine capsules (used for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, encapsulated in a soft gelatine capsules as a reverse micellar solution for rectal application) 2, and enemas. Enemas are aqueous solutions are suspensions intended for instillation into the rectal region for evacuation of bowel and to treat microbial infections. Enemas are of two types macro enemas (100ml or more) and micro enemas ( 1.3. Anatomy of Rectum and lower colon The terminal 15- 19cm portion of the large intestine is rectum; it has a circumference of 15-35cm. The rectal pH is around 7-8. The absorptive area of rectum is less when compared to that of small bowel because the rectal surface area is 200-400cm2 compared to that 200m2 of small bowel, due to very much shorter surface area per unit length 4. Generally medications for rectal delivery are better absorbed as weakly alkaline solutions. For rapid absorption of the medication aqueous solutions are preferable rather than suppositories or suspensions. Rectal absorption takes place by active absorption and for maximum retention without any rectal urgency to vacate bowels small volume of the fluid is recommended5.The diagram with a section of colon is shown below in fig-1. 1.3.1. Physiological considerations of colon 1.3.1a. Intestinal colonic micro flora The human colonic atmosphere supports over 400 distinct species of bacterium with a population of 1011 to 1012 CFU/ml with mostly Eubacterium, Bacteriodes etc6. The enzymes produced by these bacterium has wide spectrum of action, that being hydrolytic and reductive in nature, these enzymes are actively involved in many processes, such as steroidal transformation, protein and carbohydrate fermentation, and destruction of mutagenic metabolism. Nitroreductase, azoreductases, and N-oxide and sulfoxide reductases are the most extensive reductive enzymes produced by the intestinal flora7. 1.3.1b. Colonic motility Under the normal physiological conditions the colonic motility is described as irregular alternation of inactive, non-propagative, segmental contractions and infrequent propagative contractions that can be further classified into high amplitude contractions (> 100 mmHg) and low amplitude contractions ( 1.3.1c. Ascending colonic volume The ascending colonic volume was found to be 170 ±40 ml as per the studies conducted on healthy subjects using single photon emission computed tomography11. Metronidazole Metronidazole is a nitro-imidazole bactericidal agent primarily used against obligate anaerobic bacteria including Bacteroides, Clostridium spp., and certain protozoal parasites like Trichomonas vaginalis, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Blastocysistis hominis, Balantidium coli and also some of the facultative anaerobes Gardnerella vaginalis and Helicobacter pylori16. Gram negative anaerobes like bacteroides and fusobacterium species and the gram positive anaerobes like Peptosteptococci and clostridium species typically test sensitive to metronidazole. It is particularly used against Helicobacter pylori associated to duodenal ulcers and gastritis. Metronidazole is also used against anaerobic bowel flora for the prophylaxis and for the treatment of Crohns disease where patients might develop complications of infections in bowel12. Metronidazole supports the overgrowth of aerobic microbial flora of the large intestine by reducing the number of anaerobic micro-organisms with acceptable profile of adverse effects13. 1.4.1. Anti microbial action of Metronidazole Metronidazole as anti microbial agent was first introduced in 1959 for the treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis infections, and used subsequently for invasive giardiasis and amebiasis. Metronidazole is highly effective and show rapid onset of action against anaerobic infections. Antimicrobial action of Metronidazole is mainly due to the toxic intermediates which are produced during the reduction of the compound14. Interaction of these intermediates with deoxyribonucleic acid in protozoan inhibits nucleic acid synthesis and there by exerts antimicrobial effects15. Mechanism of action of Metronidazole is shown in the fig-2. 1.4.2. Physico-chemical properties Chemically metronidazole is 2-methyl-5-nitroimidazole-1-ethanol or 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-methyl-5-nitroimidazole. Its formula is C4H9N3O and its chemical formula is in the fig-3. Metronidazole is white to pale yellow coloured, odourless, crystalline powder. It is sparingly soluble in water, alcohol and slightly soluble in ether16.It is generally stable in aqueous solutions of pH 2.0-7.017. 1.4.3. Metabolism of Metronidazole Metronidazole is metabolised in the liver into two metabolites. These metabolites include 2-hydroxy-methyl-5-nitroimdazole-1-acetic acid (HM) and 2-methyl-1-2-nitroimidazole-1-acetic acid (MAA). Hydroxy metronidazole is pharmacologically active with antimicrobial action and its potency is 30% to that of metronidazole and the acetic acid metabolite of metronidazole is pharmacologically inactive but its activity is noticed in patients with renal dysfunction, small amount of metronidazole is oxidised to acetamide18. The metabolization pathway and chemical formulas can be seen in the figure 419. Study objective Metronidazole is commercially available in the form Tablets, Suppositories, Gels, and suspensions20. But metronidazole in the form of enema is not available commercially. Olumide F et al. 1976, described metronidazole in the form of enema (2gm. of metronidazole in 200ml of normal saline) for management of severe intestinal amoebiasis21. No extensive pharmaceutical data about the formulation and stability of the metronidazole enema is available at this moment. Hence, the development of a metronidazole enema was undertaken. The present objective of the study is to formulate Metronidazole retention enema in a suitable aqueous media using carbopol and tragacanth as suspending and viscosifying agents. Chemical stability of the formulated enema is analysed with an analytical method: high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and viscosity of the formulation is checked by Brook field viscometer. Aim To formulate a metronidazole retention enema and analyze physico-chemically. 2.0. Materials and Method 2.1. Chemicals Metronidazole (98.9% pure) used is a gift sample from Thrope Laboratories (India) Ltd, Mumbai. 2-methyl-5-nitro-imidazole is used as a standard impurity. Cardopol (35% w/v), tragacanth, methyl paraben, propyl paraben, tris buffer were purchased from Aldrich. The methanol and acetonitrile used were of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) grade along with distilled water; other materials namely potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium di-hydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4), acetic acid (CH3C OOH), sodium acetate (CH3COONa), sodium citrate (Na3C6H5O7) and 0.1M hydrochloric acid (HCl) were of analytical quality. 2.2. Instrumentation High Performance Liquid Chromatography apparatus and conditions The liquid chromatography used was a Varian Prostar HPLC system (Model 410), equipped with an auto sampler serial mode system with a 20 µl loop. Detection is accomplished with a UV-Visible detector. Integration and the system parameters were controlled by Galaxy software running on a PC. Viscometer The viscometer used was Brook field viscometer (Model LVDV II + PRO); displays temperature (C or F), viscosity, % scales, shear rate, shear stress, speed, % torque, and spindle. Technical specifications include 0.01 to 200/rpm, viscosity range of 1 6Million cP, with 4 supplied spindles. 2.3. Preparation of buffer solutions22, 23 2.3.1. Preparation of Phthalate buffer Phthalate buffer was prepared by dissolving 20.42g of potassium hydrogen phthalate in 1000ml of water (0.1M). The pH was adjusted with 0.1M hydrochloric acid, 0.1M sodium hydroxide. Preparation of different pH ranges of phthalate buffer is shown in the table-1: 2.3.4. Preparation of tris buffer Tris buffer was prepared by dissolving 12.11g of tris (hydroxymethyl aminomethane) in 1000ml of water (0.1M). The pH of the buffer was adjusted with 0.1M hydrochloric acid. Preparation of different ph ranges of tris buffer is shown in the table-4. 2.4. Pre-formulation studies 2.4.1. Pre-formulation solubility studies The main problem associated with developing any of the solution formulation of a compound is its aqueous solubility. Metronidazole is poorly aqueous soluble drug24. For enhancing the poorly aqueous solubility of drug there are several alternatives and these include pH manipulation, co-solvency, surfactants, chelating agents and emulsion formation25. In the present experiment the solubility of metronidazole, 2-methyl-5-nitro-imidazole in water, buffered solutions of phosphate, acetate and tris in various pH ranges were determined by adding a weighed amount of drug to the solvent by stirring with a glass rod at 20 ±2oC. Excess amount of solvent was added until the drug completely dissolved in that solvent. 2.5. Stability Indicating HPLC studies The stability studies are particularly demonstrated to analyse the quality, concentration and purity of the pharmaceutical dosage form. For demonstrating stability of pharmaceutical dosage forms HPLC is prominently used. Szepesi et al.26 described some special stability-indicating requirements for HPLC and these include: 2.5.1. Stability- indicating assay The peaks of the drug substance and its decomposition product should not elute at same time; any decrease in the active drug concentration should be detected by the method. Stability-indicating purity: The resolutions between the active component peak and the adjacent peak should be higher to identify any decomposition of the active component similar in its structure formed during different storage conditions. 2.5.3. The main impurity peak(s) should be separated from degraded product peak(s) of different chemical structure, so that evaluation of purity and assay are carried out together. 2.5.4. The peaks of the degraded products or secondary degraded products formed by the decomposition of by-product can also be separated from other peaks. 2.6. Stability-indicating purity: Pre-formulation stability studies were conducted to determine the stability of metronidazole in water and various buffered pH ranges using reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). All the solutions were stored at room temperature 20 ±2oC for approximately 20 days in glass beakers and then analysed for stability. Results and Discussion Solubility study of Metronidazole The aqueous solubility and pH solubility profiles for Metronidazole and 2-methyl-5-nitro-imidazole are shown in Table-7, 8, 9. Overall solubility of Metronidazole and 2-methyl-5-nitro-imidazole is determined at all pH values. Both Metronidazole and 2-methyl-5-nitro-imidazole exhibited high solubility at a pH range à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥4. For example, at room temperature the aqueous solubility of Metronidazole was 100mg/50ml, respectively. Metronidazole, being a weak base, appears to dissolve maximally at a pH à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 4.0. High performance liquid chromatography method development The new method developed in this present study was very closely related to that of British Pharmacopoeia. British pharmacopoeia specifies reverse phase chromatography carried out using stainless steel column (20cmÃÆ'-4.6 mm) packed with octadecylsilyl silica gel of particle size 10 µm (spherisorb ODS), using a mixture of 30 volumes of methanol and 70 volumes of 0.01M potassium di-hydrogen orthophosphate as the mobile phase with a flow rate of 1ml per minute and a detection wavelength of 315nm. To establish a new stability indicating chromatographic nature of the HPLC method, we have changed the column to 5 µm C18 (150 ÃÆ'- 4.60 mm i.d., Phenomenex) stainless steel column, packed with Sphereclone octadecylsilane (ODS) and an (eluent) mobile phase to carry out the stability analysis in the solution at ambient room temperature with a flow rate of 1.0ml/min and at a detection wave length of 325nm. Each chromatographic run required about 10 minutes and the elution time obtained for metronidazole and the standard impurity were different for different mobile phases. For methanol: KH2PO4 in the volume of 30:70v/v retention times of drug and the impurity was1.89min and 2.00min, for methanol: KH2PO4 in the volume of 80:20v/v retention times were very narrow, like wise all the mobile phase in different proportion showed a little retention time gap between drug and impurity. When acetonitrile and sodium citrate was used in the volumes of 10:90 v/v retention time gap of 2min was achieved. Elution of Metronidazole and 2-methyl-5-nitro-imidazole was achieved with a retention time of 3.19Min and 4.99Min respectively. Stability indicating solubility studies Metronidazole was observed to be relatively stable in water and buffer pH conditions. The results obtained in our stability indicating solubility study showed an agreement with solubility and studies conducted by Yunqi et al., 200527. Test for clarity and sedimentation Sedimentation was observed when the water (400C) solubilized metronidazole is stored for 20 days, this might be due to the super saturation of the solution during solubilization of the drug at high temperature. Rest of the solutions were free from particles and sedimentation when observed against a black and white back ground. Solubility studies of metronidazole and its standard impurity (2-methyl-5-nitro-imidazole), indicates solubility of metronidazole was more in aqueous solvents including various buffered pH systems. These solubility profiles help to understand the chemical nature (polarity) of drug and the impurity. Solubility of metronidazole was observed to be high in acetate buffer (100mg/30ml) than any other buffer solutions. Taking the solubility profiles and colonic pH (5.5-7) into consideration, acetate buffer of pH 6 was used to formulate enema 4. Formulation of enema Our aim to formulate retention enemas is based on the studies conducted by Nyman-Pantelidis et al., 1994. There study proved low viscous enemas superiority over high viscous enemas in retention and colonic spread28. 4.1. Preparation of metronidazole- tragacanth enema Metronidazole-tragacanth enema was prepared by simple titration technique using motor and pestle. Metronidazole retention enema prepared was an aqueous formulation with a viscosity of 6.00 cPas, containing metronidazole in a buffered pH. The formulation includes tragacanth as suspending and viscocifying agent. Methyl paraben as a preservative and NaOH (0.1M) was used to maintain the pH of the formulation. Metrinidazole was dissolved in buffered solution and then added to tragacanth gum, while triturating methyl paraben was added and pH of the final formulation is maintained at pH-6 using NaOH. The composition of the enema prepared in the study contains 1g of Metronidazole as shown in table 9. Preparation of metronidazole- carbopol enema For the treatment of anaerobic infection of colon we have formulated Metronidazole as enema using carbopol, a high molecular weight polymer of acrylic acid cross linked to allyl sucrose. Carbopol increases the viscosity of the enema and so help in retaining in the colon for maximum efficacy of metronidazole29. Metronidazole was dissolved in buffered solution 1.0g/300ml. This solution was added under constant stirring to carbopol. Methyl paraben was dissolved in water and under  constant stirring this mixture was added to the suspension. The pH of the final formulation is maintained at 6 by the addition of NaOH. The composition of the enema formulated is shown below in the table-10. Storage of enemas for stability and viscosity studies The formulated enemas were filled in 100 ml glass beakers and stored for 2 days at refrigerated conditions 40C, room temperature 200C and at accelerated conditions 400C and analysed for stability and viscosity. Stability studies of the formulated enemas Both the enemas were found to be stable for 3 days at various temperatures (2-100C, 25 ±20C, 40 ±20C). The chromatograms show no peak of degraded metronidazole. Chromatograms of both the enemas is shown in the fig-9, fig-10. Viscosities of the formulated enemas The viscosity measurements for both rectal enemas were performed by Brooks field viscometer, using spindle 62 revolving at 22 rpm. Both the rectal enemas were prepared with a viscosity of 6.0 cP using tragacanth and carbopol. The viscosities of both rectal enemas were then analysed after storage for 2 days at 2-100C, 20 ±20C, and 40 ±20C respectively and there results are shown in table-10. There was a little variation of viscosities in the formulated enemas after their storage at various temperatures, and this variation is seen especially in enemas stored at accelerated temperature (40 ±20C) for 3 day. Because viscosity is inversely related to temperature, as temperature increases viscosity decreases. Test for clarity and sedimentation Both the formulated enemas were clear without any particles when observed against a black and white background. When the enemas are further analysed, phase separation was observed in the enema formulated using tragacanth and stored at 2-100C, 20 ±20C, and 40 ±20C. Conclusion The solubility studies results indicate that metronidazole showed a good solubility at various pH levels (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥4.0). Maximum solubility of metronidazole was shown in acetate buffer of pH 6 (100mg/30ml). The stability studies indicate that metronidazole was stable at all the pH ranges without any degradation. The Metronidazole enema formulated using tragacanth and carbopol was chemically stable with no degradation when stored for a period of 3 days at 2 ±100C, 20 ±20C, 40 ±20C respectively. And there is no remarkable effect on the viscosities and pH of the enemas when stored at these temperatures. Future work In the present study stability studies were conducted for only 3 days, the results would be more appropriate if the stability studies of the formulated enema were carried for some more days. The new methodology developed for demonstrating High Performance Liquid Chromatography indicating stability studies using acetinitrile and sodium citrate in the volumes of 10:90v/v should be validated.

Suicide Research Paper :: essays research papers

Suicide, it's not pretty. For those of you who don't know what it is, it's the 'Process' of ending ones life. Suicide is sometime seen as understandable or even honorable in certain circumstances. Such as in protests (hunger strike), as part of battle or resistance (suicide pilots(WWII), suicide bombers) or as a way of preserving the honor of a 'dishonored' person (killing yourself to save someone else). Nearly one million people world wide commit suicide each year, with anywhere from 10 to 20 million suicide attempts annually. Suicide is the eighth leading cause of death in males and the 16th leading cause of death in females. It is the third leading cause of death for people 10 to 24 year of age. Trends in rates of suicides for teens 15 to 19 years old show that from 1950 to 1990 the frequency of suicides went up by 300%. From 1990 to 2003, that rate went down 35%. Self-mutilation is one of the most common methods of committing suicide. Self-mutilation means to deliberately hurt yourself without meaning to kill someone else. Examples of self-mutilation are: cutting any part of the body (usually the wrists), self- burning, head-banging, pinching, and scratching. The effects of suicide on friends and family are often devastating. Individuals who lose a loved one from suicide are more at risk for becoming pre-occupied with the reason for it. Wanting to deny or hide the cause of death, wondering if they could have prevented it, feeling blamed for the problems that preceded the suicide, feeling rejected by their loved one, and stigmatized by others really makes friends and family feel like they?re not wanted. Survivors of suicide may feel a great range of conflicting emotions about the deceased, feeling everything from intense sadness about the loss, and helpless to prevent it. Every suicide has it?s reasons, but a lot of them aren?t so legitimate. An example of a possible trigger for suicide is a real or imagined loss, like the breakup of a romantic relationship, moving, loss of a friend, loss of freedom, or loss of other privileges. Older people are more likely to kill themselves using a firearm compared to younger people. Some people commit suicide by threatening police officers, sometimes even with an unloaded gun or a fake weapon. That is commonly referred to as ?Suicide by cop.? Although firearms are the most common way people complete suicide, trying to

Alexander the Great’s Policy of Fusion Essay

From his conception, Alexander was destined for greatness. Born to Olympias, Princess of Epirus and Phillip II, King of Macedon, passion and purpose were the driving forces of his young life. As a young boy, in Philips absence, he entertained Persian envoys and much to the surprise of the guests instead of asking about the Persian hanging gardens, he asked about the state of the Persian army and the roads. Clearly, at his tender age, his thoughts were already set on conquering. Years later, after the death of Philip in 336 BC, Alexander adopted Philips plans to conquer Persia and travelled across the Hellespont in order to rightfully earn his glory and write his name into the history books. In the years that followed, Alexander did just that, proving his tactical brilliance in battle and as a result, conquering the largest empire of the age. With Persians, Macedonians and Greeks under his rule, Alexander devised a policy that would ensure the smooth running of his empire. It has been dubbed by scholars as his ‘Policy of Fusion’. What was Fusion?! The dictionary deï ¬ nes fusion as: the process or result of joining two or more things together to form a single entity. In the case of Alexander, it refers to his ‘fusing’ of the Persians with the Macedonian and Greeks to create a super empire, combing the best of Persian and Macedonian Kingship. Alexander did not wish to destroy Persia and replace it with Macedonian rule, instead he took several actions to actively encourage the combination of the two cultures. His concept was simple: treat the natives as equal, not inferior, tolerate the native customs and religion and adopt some of the native  customs. According to Curtius Rufus, Alexander said: â€Å"Everything is taking on the same hue: it is no disgrace for the Persians to copy Macedonian customs nor for the Macedonians to imitate the Persians. Those who are to live under the same king should enjoy the same rights†. The nature of Kingship Macedonian The Macedonian nature of Kingship is that the King was ‘prima inter pares’- ï ¬ rst amongst equals. This meant that the King would not bask in splendour, he would wear the same clothes as his men and be approachable to them. (Alexander knew most of his men by name). The epitome of leading from the front, the King would play a major role in battles, earning respect from his men as they shared in the glory of victory. Persian! In stark contrast the Persian King had an exulted status as all subjects were required to perform proskynesis before him. He was considered to be god’s representative on earth. He lived a life of luxury and was attended by ushers, bodyguards and eunuchs. Access to the court was controlled by the Vizier. His dress was extravagant and set him apart from his subjects. He wore a purple tunic, gold cloak and belt and a jewelled scabbard. The vastly different styles of Kingship highlighted the need for a policy of Fusion. Similarities and Differences Philip: Philip’s policies for dealing with conquered people differed vastly to Alexander’s Policy of Fusion. For after the Battle of Chaeronea the Greek States were forced to become a member of the League of Corinth of which Philip was hegemon. From the Greek States money, men and allegiance was needed to ensure peace. Although the Greek states had ‘autonomy’ it was within the Macedonian parameters. A bit of an oxymoron really; incarcerated freedom. Strict Macedonian Garrisons and a pro- Macedonian Government were in play to maintain order and provide a tool if there was disorder. Conversely, Persians and Macedonians were encouraged by Alexander to co-exist and live together, enjoying the same rights and governed by the same rules under the same King. Wether the purpose of Alexander’s policies was ‘homonoia’, or as a practical means to rule or was an attempt to Helenize Asia- Persians beneï ¬ tted from his rule. In the case of Philip, the Gree ks did not receive the same treatment. Lycurgus once famously said: â€Å"The Battle of Chaeronea marked an epoch for all ages. With the dead was buried the freedom of Greece.† The purpose of Philip’s policies was entirely for the beneï ¬ t of Macedonia. Hamilton states that: â€Å"Philip’s policy was primarily aimed at the advancement of Macedon and for this he found Greeks useful, perhaps essential. Alexander and his contemporaries received a good Greek education and in them Greek culture was more securely rooted. But admiration for Greek culture need not imply a desire to secure the welfare of Greece†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Was Fusion even Alexander’s idea- Persian policies! Although it is hard to deï ¬ ne when exactly the idea ï ¬ rst ‘popped’ into Alexanders head, it certainly would have manifested itself during the Macedonians stay in Babylon. Because it was from here that he had the ability to fuse the two cultures, as after Gaugamela- the Persian Empire was effectively his. At the time Alexander’s policy was considered revolutionary, the complete opposite of the Macedonian dealing with conquered people. However, as Fox suggests without the â€Å"Persian background Alexander’s own plans for government have been made to seem unnecessarily radical.† Persians in fact, had been fusing ideas and cultures for generations as â€Å"two hundred years before Alexander, they had overthrown the empire of the Medes and annexed the ancient civilisation of Babylon, but in each case they had availed themselves of their subjects’ experience.† Alexander’s policy and the policy of the Persian King Cyrus (both e arned the title ‘Great’) were very similar. In around 550 BC Cyrus expanded his annexed Median and Persian lands to include the Fertile Cresent. After conquering â€Å"He adopted a policy of toleration toward the people he conquered. For example, he allowed them to speak their own languages, practice their own religions, and follow their own ways of life. He also declared the ï ¬ rst Charter of Human Rights. Etched on a clay cylinder, this charter set forth Cyrus’ goals and policies. His respect for the people made Cyrus popular and made it easier for him to create a peaceful and stable empire.† Reasons for Similarities or Differences! Philip had no reason to fuse the Greek and Macedonian cultures as, aside from Macedonian being governed by an absolute monarchy and the Greek States being governed by democracy the two cultures were fundamentally the same. This was because Macedonia was Hellenized. Alexander on the other hand, was dealing with two tangibly different cultures and needed fusion to effectively rule over both. There were also differences too between King Cyrus, and Alexander’s policies. King Cyrus’s policy worked. As the most important man of the nation, if Cyrus tolerated the Medes and the peoples from the Fertile Cresent, the rest of his subjects would have too. Unlike the Greeks and Macedonians, they did not believe themselves to be superior to the people they conquered. The nature of Persian Kingship ensured the stability of the empire for the next 200 years. Alexander would have known of Cyrus’s policy and could potentially have tried to mimic it, seeing as it was so effective. Without Persian Background Alexander’s own plans for government have been make to seem unnecessarily radical (Fox). Purpose The purpose of Alexanders Policy of Fusion has been widely debated. There are several arguments. On one hand, we have William Tarn’s utopian view of homonoia- Alexander’s desire for universalism, to create a ‘brotherhood of man’. On the other, we have the juxtaposed AB Boswoth’s view that Alexander did not really attempt to ‘fuse’ the two cultures together, instead he was really playing one off against the other. As discussed in Nicholas Ed Foster’s thesis, both Classical Historians have ï ¬â€šaws in their arguments. Tarn is perceived to practically worship Alexander and his achievements, focussing on creating the big picture of the great king, while overlooking massacres that occurred during the campaign. Bosworth does the opposite, as he focuses on the massacres and ignores Alexander’s intentions. There are other ideas surrounding the purpose of fusion, one is that it was used because it  provided the practical means to rule the two peoples. Other’s argue that fusion was an attempt to spread Greek culture. Brotherhood of Man At the time, Alexander’s ideas were considered revolutionary. His actions completely went against the ideas of Aristotle, where captured people were barbarians, treated worse than animals. Alexander changed this completely. When he declared that all men were alike sons of one Father and when, at Opis he prayed that Macedonian and Persians might partners in the commonwealth and that the peoples of his world might live in harmony and unity of heart and mind (Tarn). According to Curtius Rufus Alexander justiï ¬ ed his entire conquest by saying that he had hoped to annex his empire to many famous peoples. He also justiï ¬ ed his actions around marriage by saying that his intention â€Å"was to erase all distinction between conquered and conquerer†. Practical Means to Rule Alexander’s Policy of Fusion is considered by some to have stemmed from necessity. Put simply, fusion was a practical way to bring Hellenic and Eastern cultures under one rulethis was the purpose of it. Due to the vast expanse of the empire, the area simply became too large to be controlled solely by the Macedonian Army. Furthermore, â€Å"By appointing Persian satraps, or in many cases simply leaving them in their previous positions of power, Alexander was able to prevent the rise of dissent from the populace.† (Nicholas Ed Foster, Thesis LSU) Tamsin Woolf AS91397 Policy in Action: Alexanders Policy wasn’t a mere Policy of words, it was a Policy shown in action. Alexander showed his policy in various ways, both big and small. After entering Babylon, Alexander was quick to initiate his policy of fusion through action. His ï ¬ rst action, after entering the great city, was to restore the temples that were destroyed by Xerxes, including the great Temple of Bel, where he made a sacriï ¬ ce. Much to the surprise of the Macedonians, respect was shown to Persian nobility, especially to Kings of the past. Bessus, for the murder of Darius, was paid special attention. After having his face customarily mutilated and torturing him, Alexander â€Å"had him torn limb from limb. He had the tops of two straight trees bent down so that they met, and part of Bessus’ body was tied to each. Then when each tree was let go and sprang back to its upright position, the part of the body that was attached to it was torn off by the recoil. (Plutarch) Persians were given positions of power and included in Alexanders army. Previously considered ‘barbarians’ were made Satraps of provinces with the most signiï ¬ cant being Mazeaeus re-established as satrap of Babylon and Porus, being given back his rule after his defeat at Hydaspes. Alexanders elite Companion Cavalry which previously was comprised of men from the ranks of Macedonian nobility, who had proven their worth in the ï ¬ eld of battle now included Persian Lords. Alexander adopted the Persian dress, wearing the diadem along with a pure white robe and sash, a compromise between Persian and Median costume. â€Å"He may have done this from a desire to adapt himself to local habits, because he understood that the sharing of race and of customs is a great step towards softening men’s hearts.† (Plutarch) Like his father Philip, Alexander also used marriages for political reasons. Through his own marriages to Roxanne (the captive daughter of Oxyartes, a Bactrian noble), to Barsine, the eldest daughter of Darius and (according to Aristobulus) to Parysatus daughter of Artaxerxes Ochus, Alexander had linked himself with both branches of the Achaemenid Persian House. Alexander also encouraged marriages between his men and Persian women. This was demonstrated at the mass marriages at Susa which according to Hamilton: â€Å"brought to a climax his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into a single race.† It was at Susa that 90 of Alexanders men married noble Persian women at a mass celebration. The brides received considerable dowries. One of the most dubious enforced actions introduced by Alexander was the Persian court practice, proskynesis. Researcher Herodotus of Halicarnassus observed the practice: â€Å"When the Persians meet one another in the roads, you can see whether those who meet are of equal rank. For instead of greeting by words, they kiss each other on the mouth; but if one of them is inferior to the other, they kiss one another on the cheeks, and if one is of much less noble rank than the other, he falls down before him and worships him.† As part of his Policy of Fusion, Alexander believed that the action would bring Persians and Macedonians together, however instead of this, it only managed to highlight the differences between races. While Persians already performed proskynesis to their King, for Macedonians, the action was reserved only for gods. Along with his other actions, Alexander ensured sustainability for the future and had 30,000 Iranian boys trained for the military, they were taught Greek, wore Macedonian attire and used Macedonian weapons. They were called ‘The Successors’. According to Arrian, Alexander called them his Epigoni- his inheritors. The title for the boys was apt as they would inherit the empire, and before Alexander’s death, they were obliged to him only. Persian Reaction: Implications and Impacts The Persian people viewed Alexander as a liberator, his actions repeatedly encouraged them to trust him. Unlike the Macedonians, the Persians did not have to do anything to be a part of Alexanders policy, instead, Alexanders actions encouraged the Macedonians to adopt Persian customs. Through sacriï ¬ cing to the Temple of Bel, ensuring a proper funeral for King Darius and hunting down Bessus for Darius’s murder, Alexander showed great respect for the Persian people and their customs. Before Persepolis Alexander’s men followed their leader blindly. They would die for him. They would die for the noble cause of punishing the Persians. As Alexander started to implement his Policy of Fusion discontent began to brew amongst the Macedonian Camp. Having to live in harmony with the ‘barbarians’ who they came to Asia to conquer was something they were not prepared for. This was something they struggled with as the Macedonians and  Greeks believed that they were the superior race. Furthermore, many Macedonians felt that Alexander was no longer loyal to them and thus became resentful. The strain in the relationship is shown through several events some of which are explicit reactions to fusion, while others are implicit. Division between Old Guard and New Guard The division of the Old and New Guard is shown through the Old Guard’s more extreme reactions to Alexander’s Policy of Fusion early on in the piece. Many of the Old Guard had fought under Philip and were used to his ways. This, combined with their distaste for the Fusion Policy and that the Old Guard felt that their actions at Battles past, had been forgotten created a divide between the young and old. Philotas and Parmenio In late 330 BC, in the early stages of the implementation of Fusion, a plot was hatched to kill the King. Philotas was informed to consult the King immediately, but failed to twice. Because of this he was connected to the plot and killed. Shot down by the Macedonian javelins together with his fellow conspirators (Arrian). There are several other factors that could have contributed to his death. Philotas was known to condemn the Policy. His death was a combination of Alexander’s growing insecurity concerning plots and the Macedonian resentment of Fusion. These factors blinded Alexander into believing Philotas’s guilt. There is no hard evidence to suggest Philotas’s guilt. The only proof of it appears to be his failure to organise an audience for Cebalinus or to inform Alexander of what he had been told (Hamilton). As a result of the danger of a Parmenio ï ¬ lled with vengeance at the death of his son, Parmenio was murdered too. These incidents prove how adamant Alexander was to continue with his policy, using brutality for the greater good of ensuring harmony between two peoples. Cleitus Cleitus the Black was the Commander of the Royal Squadron of Companion Cavalry and a friend of Philip. In Maracanda, 328 BC, at a drinking party Cleitus and some of the older members became offended by an insulting chant. The division between the old and young is highlighted as the â€Å"older members shouted their disproval of both the composer and the singer, but Alexander and those next to him listened with evident enjoyment and told the singer to continue Whereupon Cleitus who, besides being naturally surly and having a savage temper, was by now drunk, became extremely angry† (Plutarch). In his speech, Cleitus vented all his feelings over the last few years, particularly around fusion. â€Å"It was not right for Macedonians who were much superior to those who mocked them, even if they had met with misfortune, to be insulted before natives and enemies.† â€Å"The dead I call fortunate; they don’t live to see the Macedonians ï ¬â€šogged by the the rods of Medians and begging Persians for permission to have an audience with their king.† (Plutarch) †¦ â€Å"Go, and live with foreigners, slaves who will bow down before your Persian girdle and your white tunic.† (Plutarch) As a result of Cleitus’s comments, Alexander (who was also drunk) snatched a spear from one of his bodyguards and ran it through Cleitus. Proskynesis Historically, Persians had performed proskynesis when recognising someone of higher rank than them, as they had done to Darius, they prostrated themselves before Alexander. The action was not one of worship, merely recognising someone of higher rank. For the Macedonians however, the action was something only the slavish barbarians did. For them, the action was strictly reserved for gods. Despite Alexanders attempts to prove his divinity, he was human. What added salt to the wound was that before the campaigns he had adopted the historical Macedonian form of Kingship- prima inter pares- ï ¬ rst amongst equals. Despite knowing this, Alexander had counted in the action to enhance his fusion policy. In 327 BCE Alexander attempted to introduce proskynesis at a drinking party. According to Plutarch Alexander passed the cup to one of his friends, who took it, rose from his couch, turned to face the hearth, drank, and performed proskynesis before kissing Alexander and resuming his place. All the guests followed suit except for the philosopher Callisthenes, who refused to prostrate himself. One opposed to the action seems insigniï ¬ cant. Indeed, he was the only person to voice openly his disproval of what all the best and oldest of the Macedonians resented in their hearts. By preventing the introduction of this practise he saved the Greeks from great disgrace and Alexander from a greater (Plutarch). Mutiny at Opis One of the most illuminating examples of the Macedonian reaction to Fusion was the Mutiny at Opis- as it highlights the extent of the discontent  between Alexander and his troops. With a previous mutiny, conspiracies and the rejection of proskynesis already under their belt, the arrival of the ‘Successors’ in Susa was the tip of the iceberg for the Macedonians. The 30,000 Iranian boys arrived in Susa wearing Macedonian clothing and carrying Macedonian equipment, performing a dazzling display of discipline and deftness  before the Macedonian Army. At Opis, Alexander announced that he was releasing from the Army those who, because of old age or disablement, were no longer ï ¬ r for service and was sending them home (Arrian). This greatly vexed the Macedonian Army as they assumed that Alexander intended to replace them with the young ‘war dancers’ as they resentfully termed them (Hamilton). This assumption, combined with their distaste in Alexander’s dress throughout the campaign, his appointment (or re-appointment) of foreign Satrap leaders and inclusion of Persian in the Army (including into the prestigious Companion Cavalry) lead to their response. Arrian states that: â€Å"they did not stand passively in respectful silence, but shouted to him to dismiss every man of them and carry on with his ‘father’, mocking Ammon by this remark.† A mutiny against Alexanders actions as a result of his Fusion policy is signiï ¬ cant because it shows just how widespread the discontent was, this discontent was not something felt only by the Old Guard. Patterns of Reaction Fusion- Can we trust it?! Fusion rufï ¬â€šed the feathers of the Macedonians. It created tension which lead to recurring negative reaction. Although most Macedonians were opposed to  the policy from the outset, the Old Guard seemed more offended by it and people knew where they stood. The execution of Philotas and Parmenio and the murder of Cleitus show just how important the policy was to Alexander and how seriously he took opposition to it. As time went on war weariness and Alexander’s change in status from ‘ï ¬ rst amongst equals’ to Son of Ammon started to take a toll on the rest of the troops, the discontent in the Macedonian Army regarding fusion became more widespread, ultimately resulting in Mutiny. As none of the primary sources exist today, I have used all secondary sources in my report. This begs the question- can the sources be trusted? The secondary sources each used different primary sources from both the Good Tradition and the Vulgate. I used Arrian, Plutarch and Curtius Rufus. Arrian used mainly Ptolemy and Aristobulous but he also used Nearchus and Callisthenes. Plutarch used all sources, while Curtius Rufus used an unknown source, embellished with Cleitarchus who used sensational popular beliefs, rather than facts. This ultimately made Curtius Rufus less reliable than Arrian and Plutarch. However, it is highly improbable that the secondary sources used the primary sources word for word, rather they used the primary sources to back up their own conclusions about Alexander. There is also the question of what the primary sources had to gain from their writing. Although the good tradition are considered to be more reliable than the vulgate, they were all close to Alexander and potentially built up his achievements for their own personal gain. Conclusion: In conclusion, Alexander’s Policy of Fusion was implemented in order for Alexander to effectively govern both Persians and Macedonians. It sparked many negative reactions from the Macedonians who viewed themselves as superior. Initially the more extreme reactions were shown by the Old Guard, but with time, the whole of the army came to oppose the policy, as shown  through the Mutiny at Opis. Despite the opposition, Alexander chose to continue to pursue his policy with great perseverance. Bibliography Websites: http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=abbott&book=alexander&story=death Date http://www.livius.org/pp-pr/proskynesis/proskynesis.htm http://student.kc.school.nz/ClassWebs/ClassicsWeb/Classics301/Alexander%20The%20Great/ Alexander%20PwrPts/E.%20Alexander%20&%20the%20Macedonians/1.ThePolicyofFusion.pdf! http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-04112005-150526/unrestricted/Foster_thesis.pdf http://www.google.co.nz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&ved=0CDsQFjAE&url=http %3A%2F%2Feduco.vln.school.nz%2Fmod%2Fresource%2Fview.php%3Fid %3D4300&ei=WMlpU5XECIilkQXVkIHwBg&usg=AFQjCNExDT4GSgLAlubZldzs7r8rQUMag&bvm=bv.66111022,d.dGI http://www.eduplace.com/kids/socsci/ca/books/bkf3/writing/02_empires.pdf Books Arrian. (1976) The Campaigns of Alexander, page 356 Penguin Classics Hamilton, JR. (1973). Alexander the Great. Hutchinson & Co (Publishers) LTD page 28 Plutarch. (1973). The Age of Alexander. Penguin Classics- page 301, 283 The History of Alexander Penguin Classics pages 244,245

If Only I Could Go Back

It was around 9:00 pm and the atmosphere was charged. The roads were blocked and the police were to be found on every corner. A search was in place, I was the suspect. My clothes were stained with blood, not my blood but Eve's blood. My face was covered with dirt as though I had taken a dip in a pigsty. Suddenly just behind me I heard a booming sound â€Å"Freeze, don't move†, but I was too faint to synchronize with a response. Red and blue lines were flashing before my guilty eyes, it was the police. They had found me; I was handcuffed on the spot and thrown into the back of a van like a captured animal thrown into his cage. I was read out my rights â€Å"You have the right to remain silent, anything you say or do can be used against you in a court of law†. That was it, I had been on the run for 4 consecutive days. My stomach lunched with hunger, my body desperately urged for rest but worst of all I was ruined. I was filled with intense regret. Although a sense of denial ran through my head, my conscience overcame the effect and I knew what I had done was wrong. â€Å"Too late now† I thought to myself. As I neared the place of my judgment with the last bit of strength in me I shouted aloud â€Å"God Forgive Me†. Time seemed to crawl as freedom raced its way out of my life. I was utterly left to rot. Fear and regret was all I could think of. My sense of fear was so strong, that I began to cry. My emotions overpowered me once again and the more I thought of the crime I had committed the more I continued to cry. I then arrived at the police station where I saw my father standing with only one expression on his face, ‘SHOCK'. As a police officer informed my father of my actions I saw a tear form in his eyes, a tear filled with shame and disappointment. The sight of my father's face scared me all the more. A vision of an empty, lonely future came alive at the back of my head, the past 18 years of my life flashed past me so fast like a video cassette put on super forward. I then heard a rough thick voice say â€Å"Why my son, why did you beat Eve to death?† It was my father who by now had understood precisely what had happened. He was a man who went through a lot of rough times himself. I was silent. The cause of my actions was due to my family problems. The agony, the loneliness of my parents being divorced and not having a father and a mother at the same time made me feel empty. My family was very dear to me, as a ‘real family' was all I wanted. Ever since I was a child I've been brought up by a single parent and always wished to have my parents back together. I longed all my life to know how a real family life was, but I was deprived of that. I did not want my father to pity me hence; I kept the reason to myself. I am a man now and should be responsible for my actions. It was because of Eve who simultaneously insulted my family and made fun of the fact that my parents were divorced. â€Å"Your parents don't love you that was why they left you† was one of the many hurtful things she said. At first I tried to ignore it but the truth penetrated its way into me and anger was all that was left in me. The blood in my veins boiled making me all the angrier where at one point I burst and took all my anger out on her. Punch after punch, kick after kick. This is when my emotions took over me at first. Everything happened so fast, and by the time it was all over and saw Eve's helpless body lying horizontally opposite to me, I was shocked but most of all scared. This was the first time I had actually seen someone die before my own eyes, and to worsen things it was me who had â€Å"murdered† her. I acted like a robot controlled by the truth and my emotions. Then the fear of death took over me and for the first few minutes I froze at a standstill but the thought of what I had done scared me so much that I began to run as fast as I could to hide myself from what I had done. Now my life is ruined. I feel like a total failure. Till this very day each moment I sit in my jail cell, I feel helpless and hungry and regret what I had done and just wish if I can take back what had happened. The thought, the whole thing just keeps running through my mind making me feel so wrong and so bad. â€Å"Oh! If I could only go back in time!†